The university and college traditions which have developed over the past seven centuries represent one of the remarkable features of international life (Van den Bor et al, 1989). The clearly defined culture of universities which allowed peripatetic scholars to roam Europe in medieval times continues to allow modern academics to move between countries, largely unaffected by the limitations of language, religion and politics or culture. It is within this international culture, and one of skills training based on schools, that agricultural education first developed during the 1600s.
An essay attributed to Cressy Dymock published in London in 1651 includes a proposal ...
'for the erecting of a Colledge of Husbandry and in order thereto for the taking in of Pupills or Apprentices and alfo Friends or Fellowes of the same Colledge or Society ...'
The Institute of Agricultural History at the University of Reading dates the opening of the Academio Dei George in Florence at 1753 (Creasey, 1995) and Beveridge (1991) records a Chair in Agriculture as being established at the University of Padua in 1764. One summary of the early history of agricultural education may be styled The True (1929) History of Agricultural Education.
Creasey (1995) traces the University of Hohenheim in Germany to its forebear, the Agricultural High School founded in 1818 and the French National School of Agriculture at Gignon to a foundation date of 1827. The origins of agricultural education in Europe appear to be either far-sighted university appointments or private initiatives, such as the formation of the first Italian school of agriculture. The latter, established by the Marquis Ridolfi in the 1830s, served the sons of farmers without the requirement for fees due to an apparent reluctance of farmers to pay for education.
The establishment of a Foundation Chair in Agriculture at Padua was followed by the establishment of a similar chair at the University of Edinburgh in 1790 (Fleming and Robertson, 1990). The first appointee at Edinburgh, Professor Andrew Coventry is regarded as the founder of the Scottish system of agricultural education. He was active in discussions with farmers, landowners, and students and has been described as a researcher and extension worker (Beveridge, 1991). The Scottish system provides an appropriate basis for describing the subsequent development of successful agricultural education systems. It was based on a philosophy that education, research and advisory activities were parts of a whole, an ethos which the Land Grant College (LGC) system of the United States was to progressively adopt.
The True (1929) History of Agricultural EducationFerdinand Kindermann (1740-1801), a Bohemian, sometimes called "father of industrial education", under the patronage of Maria Theresa, founded an elementary school in which agriculture, music, and religion were taught along with the three R's. This plan was also followed in other schools. In Bohemia an agricultural school was opened at Tirnova in 1791. ... In Hungary agricultural schools were established at Zarvas in 1779; at Nagy-Michlos in 1786; the Georgicon Academy at Kezthely, founded in 1797, was for 50 years "the model agricultural college of Europe". ... Near the end of the eighteenth century Frederick the Great undertook the development of agricultural schools as a part of a broad plan for improving the agricultural condition of Prussia, and his example was followed by his successors. ... Albrecht Thaer (1752-1828) successfully engaged in practical and scientific farming, and when visitors to his farm at Celle, in Hanover, became numerous he began in 1802 to give them instruction, and this led to the establishment of the agricultural institute in that town. In 1806 he founded the agricultural school at Moeglin, near Berlin, which became famous, and which was raised to the Royal Academy of Agriculture, 1824. ... In 1811 the academy at Tharandt, in Saxony, was founded and a little later than the agricultural college of the University of Leipzig. In Wurtemburg, the agricultural college of Hohenheim was founded in 1818, which had a large model farm. This institution was very successful and attracted much attention in other countries. ... About 1820 Matthieu de Dombasle founded at Roville, near Nancy, the first school of agriculture worthy of that name in France and almost entirely with private means maintained it for some time. In 1829 the school at Grignon and the following year the school at Grand-Jouan were founded by pupils of Dombasle and later became State schools. ...True (1929) |
Scotland: The Scottish system evolved to link colleges of agriculture established between 1899 and 1904 with the universities. The colleges had the objectives of maintaining a teaching institution for agriculture in different regions of Scotland and, providing extension teaching to associated counties. The linkages between colleges and universities continues today through selected joint appointments.
Soon after the establishment of the colleges, agricultural research institutes were established such as the Rowett in 1912. This completed an integrated system of research, teaching and extension, with staff who could accept responsibilities beyond their nominated institutions. As Beveridge (1991) notes, ...
'since the second World War a complete network of field advisory officers and staff covering all of Scotland has developed and been administered from the Colleges, while, within the Colleges wide-ranging specialist backup services have been built.'
Recent revisions to the system have led to the privatising of advisory services, centralising of college administration, and a commodity focus for research. These changes are seen by some as serious cuts due to the withdrawal of grants sustaining advisory work and research and development which benefit farming and industrial interests but which, in the government's view, should be paid for at full cost (Williams, 1989).
United States of America: The agricultural education system of the United States is widely recognised as having been a major contributor to agricultural development in that country and beyond. The so-called Land Grant Colleges evolved to integrate research, teaching and extension activities within each state. While it is sometimes suggested that the concept was developed with foresight in the late 1700s, the original concept was for teaching in rural areas to which a research function was subsequently added, and later a formal extension activity. As Penders (1971) observes, the extension function was added in recognition of the need to extend educational activities to those unable to attend colleges, and to ensure the dissemination of research results from the universities and related research stations.
Both the Scottish and United States systems retain strong organisational links between research, teaching and extension. The separation which occurs in other countries between institutions responsible for research and extension and those responsible for research and education introduces additional costs and inefficiencies in the development and delivery of new information and may be loosely termed The European System.
While the Scottish (and possibly Northern Ireland) system, shares a philosophy with the United States, new systems developed elsewhere, such as in Australia, perpetuated the separation of functions as was the practice in England.
The European SystemThere is no formal link between the Agricultural University on the one hand and applied agricultural research and rural extension on the other. This factor is explained by the European concept of university teaching which must be "free", that is, not socially committed. With the exception of Scotland, there is no tie between rural extension and the agricultural university in any other European country. Meanwhile a certain change has become noticeable in this respect: the Agricultural University in the Netherlands strives to obtain more freedom in agricultural research and is developing certain initiatives in order to be more directly concerned in the pre-service and post-graduate training of extension personnel. ...Penders (1971) |
Australia: Agricultural education in Australia followed similar developments in the United Kingdom and its colonies. Colleges of Agriculture were established in South Australia [1885] and Victoria [1886] and subsequently in other states. Tribe and Peel (1989) observe that colleges were established to train young people for farming, as indicated in a Hawkesbury College prospectus
'the primary objective ... is to train young men in the practice and science of agriculture, and as far as possible to fit them for the profitable management of farms.'
In recent decades, colleges have progressively separated from their parent State Departments of Agriculture to merge with or evolve into universities, some retaining their focus on vocational education. During the early part of this century, universities began the establishment of faculties of agriculture, an event which in itself had an impact on the development of the existing agricultural colleges. Interactions between colleges and universities were initially common as indicated in the statement of Sir Samuel Wadham (1951).
'In Adelaide, Roseworthy Agricultural College became formally associated with the University [of Adelaide] in 1905 when students with the college diploma, who had matriculated, were given status in the Faculty of Science, and permitted to take a BSc degree after passing a special two year course, while science students could spend two years at the college in partial fulfilment of the requirements of that degree. The course did not make much progress until the foundation of the Waite Institute in 1924 led to a great upsurge of interest in the subject. Melbourne went a stage further in 1905 and created a faculty: however, this had no special staff until 1911, when the State Government provided 1,000 pounds a year for five years for the salary of the first professor, the late Dr. T. Cherry, whose appointment lapsed in 1916 while he was on active service overseas.'
Linkages between Australia and the United States can be seen in the history of Australia's agricultural education. The establishment of the Victorian colleges, notably Dookie and Longerenong, owe much to local interest in the establishment of LGCs in the United States. However, subsequent events in Australia, in particular economic hardship in the depression of the 1890s, led to different levels of development of agriculture in the two countries. Once universities were established, the influence of the United States was reduced, and Australian graduates entering post-graduate education commonly studied in the United Kingdom, although this shifted gradually towards the United States over time. With the establishment of PhD degrees in Australia, initially at the universities of Melbourne and Sydney in the 1940s, interaction between the systems declined and the proportion of Australian students holding graduate degrees from Australia progressively rose. In the post-World War II period, increased Federal and State funding led to greater emphasis being placed on vocational courses in the sciences and social sciences and on research. A trend to produce students who were useful upon graduation was seen as inevitable in applied fields such as agriculture, medicine, law and teaching (Rowe, 1960).
Tribe and Peel (1989) provided a history of agricultural development in Australia and highlighted the natural resource disasters which occurred through ignorance of development in a new environment. Rapid levels of innovation and recognition of the need for research and education derived from such circumstances.
The image of agriculture has not been assisted by the relative neglect of farmer education. This has allowed criticism of the knowledge levels of persons charged with managing the bulk of most countries' terrestrial resources. Campbell (1983) claimed distressingly low levels of farmer education in Australia in the face of evidence linking education to the adoption of new practices. In the 1960s, less than two per cent of the 6,000 to 8,000 persons entering farming in Australia each year had formal post-secondary education. This figure was the lowest proportionally among developed countries (UNCSTD, 1979). Educational linkages to other sectors of agriculture such as processing, marketing and resource management have also been criticised in the Australian system.
The importance of informal and vocational education in Australia suggests that statistical generalisations based upon participation in higher education courses, do not provide an accurate indication of the depth of education of those engaged in agriculture. The figures of Table 1 which compare educational participation in OECD countries, indicate wide variations between countries and should warn against extrapolation. It is also conceivable that low participation rates of farmers in education may be of slightly less concern where there is a well-trained service sector for agriculture. In addition to farming related activities, the breadth of agricultural education includes food processing, social and environmental issues, and marketing.
The decreased proportion of the population engaged for agricultural production, an outcome of technological innovation itself, has led to urban dwellers becoming largely ignorant of food production systems.
One recurring argument within agricultural education is the relative muddiness of the boots of agricultural scientists. Campbell (1983) eloquently argued against both this absolute requirement and statements that agricultural education institutions should be located in rural areas. The integrated nature of agricultural education brings together the natural and social sciences and therefore necessarily draws from a wide range of faculties in large universities. Outside the United States, institutions which combine vocational and higher education are not commonly based in rural areas. The merging of colleges and university departments associated with agriculture and related education and research in Australia, makes possible a bridging of the city-urban gap while strengthening the links between research and education, including extension.
The difference between vocational and university education for agriculture may not be as clear as is commonly assumed. Eddy (1956) noted that in the United States
'the LGCs have developed from institutions which were little more than trade schools.'
Likewise in Australia, Campbell (1983) noted that agricultural colleges have progressively been upgraded to become degree granting institutions somewhat akin to university faculties of agriculture. Campbell applauds the two states of Victoria and Western Australia for standing against this trend and retaining skills-based vocational education as a primary focus in agricultural colleges to complement the integrated science-based offerings of universities. Falvey and Bardsley (1995) in discussing the revitalisation of agricultural education in the Australian university system identify the need for distinct and high quality skills-based courses and degree courses with pathways between the two. They also note features from the LGC system worthy of emulation; one of these was the practical orientation to agriculture maintained through industry involvement.
Agricultural education may be perceived as a vocationally-oriented professional education. The separation of funding and organisational arrangements between university and vocational education in many countries introduces an artificial barrier which requires innovative management to overcome. Nevertheless, one must acknowledge the essential difference between skills-based training and the acquisition of general knowledge for integrating a range of disciplines.
Hall (1972) notes that skills training is commonly dropped when funding cut backs and rationalisations occur in agricultural education within the integrated Scottish system. He also notes that:
'the long term well-being of vocational agricultural education requires an annual recruitment of good university graduates'
Thereby suggesting that teachers in vocational institutions require a breadth of knowledge to understand the application of skills even if the curricula of such courses is more oriented to technologies and skills. Within Australia, separate funding mechanisms for vocational and higher education introduce a need for improved management and recent policy changes appear to herald a period of greater integration of courses.
Preconceptions as to the distinctions between training and education lead to confusion as to the roles of institutions. In arguing for strengthening of vocational education nearly 25 years ago, Hall (1972) noted that pressure on university under-graduate training for graduates to be job-ready, has already vocationalised university education in Australia far more than is admitted, and that the LGCs of the United States have hardly shied away from such a vocational orientation
Commercial farmers have become a minority of modern society and their political influence has waned as a consequence. This places agricultural education institutions which service that sector in a vulnerable position, particularly when it is recognised that, to date, the majority of their funds have come from government levies or taxes. Others have presented this in more alarming terms concerning the loss of personal and local knowledge about rural geography, life and indeed contact with the land.
It is curious that in discussions of this social phenomenon, various commentators refer to the loss of political influence of agriculture and agricultural education in the same breath as commenting about the value of land maintained by rural dwellers on behalf of society. With such a demographic shift, city-based agricultural, food, horticulture and forestry education should feel even more confident of its future in a wider brief of natural resource management education.
The history of agricultural and related education in south-eastern Australia exhibits strong overlaps with the developments in the United States, and bears the imprint of Australia's colonial origins from Britain. The early establishment of colleges at the request of what today might be called industry, provided a practical basis for training which over the decades developed into educational provision of the breadth necessary to service the complex agriculture of Australia. The introduction of a land grant system based on that of the United States, the establishment of parallel systems between the colleges and universities, and the eventual growing together of the colleges and the university sectors may all be seen as logical steps in an evolutionary path. The short histories of the colleges and departments presented in the following chapters indicate the entities which have come together to form Australia's largest agglomeration of agricultural and related education.
The decreased proportion of the population required for agricultural production, an outcome of technological innovation itself, has weakened the link with the wider population. The fact that this linkage has broken down also suggests that the focus of such education is large scale production agriculture. This issue will be discussed further in Chapters 12 and 13. However, it is first appropriate, in the next chapter to introduce the Prelude to the establishment of agricultural colleges in this part of Australia.